NDIA Accountability Project

Response to the Select Committee on Foundational and Disability Supports

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Submission No 123

INQUIRY INTO FOUNDATIONAL AND DISABILITY SUPPORTS AVAILABLE FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE IN NEW SOUTH WALES

Organisation: The Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre Date Received: 17 September 2026

OLGA TENNISON AUTISM RESEARCH CENTRE:

Response to the Select Committee on Foundational and Disability Supports Available for Children and Young People in New South Wales

ENQUIRIES Associate Professor Josephine Barbaro Principal Research Fellow, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, La Trobe University Victoria, 3086

Latrobe.edu.au/otarc

Acknowledgement of Country

La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre (OTARC) acknowledges that we work on the unceded lands of many traditional Indigenous custodians in Victoria and across Australia. We recognise their ongoing connection to the land and value their unique contribution to our research, to La Trobe University, and to wider Australian society. We pay our respects to Elders past and present and thank them for their ongoing care of this beautiful country’s land, skies, and waterways.

Diversity

OTARC is committed to embracing diversity and eliminating all forms of discrimination. We will develop and sustain a culture where access, diversity, and inclusivity are recognised, valued, and celebrated. We welcome all people irrespective of neurotype, ethnicity, lifestyle choice, faith, sexual orientation, or gender identity.

Lived experience

OTARC’s research could not happen without the individual and collective contributions of those with lived experience of neurodivergence, and those who love and care for them. We acknowledge and value their unique expertise. Their perspectives are crucial to our mission to enrich the lives of Autistic people, their families, and their carers through high-quality scientific research, innovation, and translation, and our vision for a world where Autistic people, their families, and their carers thrive.

Research participants

OTARC would like to acknowledge our research participants whose invaluable contributions make our work possible. Their commitment and willingness to share their time, experiences, and perspectives have significantly advanced our understanding of autism and the potential impact of our research.

Recommended citation: Barbaro, J., Clark-Whitney, E., Blackwell, D., & Haschek, A. (2026). The Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre: Response to the Select Committee on Foundational and Disability Supports Available for Children and Young People in New South Wales. La Trobe University. doi: 10.26181/33869023

This work is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/

INTRODUCTION

La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre (the Centre) welcomes the opportunity to respond to the Select Committee on Foundational and Disability Supports Available for Children and Young People in New South Wales (NSW). The Centre is Australia’s first and largest autism research centre, dedicated to producing high- quality research that improves outcomes for Autistic people¹ and their families.

“Autism is a lifelong neurodevelopmental difference, characterised by challenges with social communication and interaction, and engagement in non-social differences, such as repetitive behaviours, intense interests, and/or unusual sensory experiences including sensory hyper-reactivity.”²

In 2024, 290,900 (1.1%) Australians reported a diagnosis of autism.³ This is likely to be an underestimate, with recent studies estimating prevalence closer to 3-4%.⁴

We work in partnership with Autistic people, families, employers, service providers, and governments to co-design research and translate evidence into practice. Our research aims to support Autistic people and their families in actively participating in their community, education and employment, finding enjoyment in life, and making meaningful contributions aligned with their goals. Fostering community inclusion is central to this aim.

This submission draws on our research spanning autism identification, diagnosis, early support, and education, alongside the broader national and international evidence base. This submission was produced by a neurodiverse team. This submission addresses Terms of Reference a-g.

IN THIS SUBMISSION

Recommendations …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

(a) Role of services & supports on a child’s development, health & wellbeing ………………………. 5

(b) service types & supports available & measures to improve …………………………………………………… 6

(c) role of diagnostic services, existing gaps & barriers, & measures to …………………………………… 7

(d) gaps & barriers to accessing early childhood intervention & their impact …………………….. 14

(e) opportunities to increase engagement across sectors & improved ………………………………….. 17

(f) other government or best practice child development & early childhood ……………………… 19

(g) workforce issues in child development & early childhood intervention sectors …………. 22

References ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23

Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27

¹ Autistic is capitalised in line with Autistic community feedback and the National Autism Strategy. ² Spoor et al (2026); We will use identity first language in the OTARC language statement - https://www.latrobe.edu.au/otarc/statements/statement-on-language-and-participatory-research ³ Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) ⁴ Barbaro et al (2010); Barbaro et al (2022); Sadka et al (2023)

RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendation 1: The NSW Government should support practical, community-based workforce training that includes direct experience with people with disability to promote attitude change and skill development. The NSW Government should:

  • fund short-duration, community-based capability building that pairs staff with people with disability in real-world settings (e.g. the FitSkills program)
  • prioritise ongoing professional development
  • prioritise training delivered by or with people with lived experience of disability.

Recommendation 2: The NSW Government should adopt, adapt and locally implement existing evidence-based programs designed to mitigate systemic barriers faced by Autistic students in Australian schools, including sensory overload and anxiety. For example, the Learning About Neurodiversity at School (LEANS) program, SelfSense, the SENSIBLE approach: SENSory-Informed Best practices for Learning, and parent-mediated program CLK-CUES.

Recommendation 3: The NSW Government should invest in a public health campaign targeted at the general public, particularly parents of infants, to increase knowledge and acceptance of autism and to reduce stigma. The campaign should:

  • be co-produced with Autistic people across priority cohorts, utilise a neurodiversity-affirming framework, and include culturally appropriate resources for CALD and First Nations groups
  • include associated resources specifically targeted to providers who work with young children, including medical and allied health providers and early childhood educators
  • pair awareness of the early signs of autism with autism acceptance, addressing diagnostic barriers at a population level.

Recommendation 4: The NSW Government should invest in neurodiversity-affirming care model training for existing diagnostic and intervention services to reduce family alienation and optimise developmentally vulnerable children’s likelihood of accessing supports in a timely fashion.

Recommendation 5: The NSW Government should consider investing in a New South Wales Early Assessment Clinic to reduce waitlists and to provide a best-practice example of a neurodiversity-affirming practice. The clinic should provide outreach services to regional and remote areas using existing community facilities, following the Victorian Early Assessment Clinic (VEAC) model, including:

  • low-barrier referral (by Child and Family Health Services, medical or allied health practitioners, or direct self-referral)
  • telehealth for components that can be completed remotely
  • a multidisciplinary assessment pathway.

Recommendation 6: The NSW Government should build Child and Family Health Services workforce capacity through evidence-based training in autism screening. This screening should be incorporated into routine universal child health visits so that all NSW children receive comprehensive monitoring for early behavioural signs of autism during their routine universal child health visits. This could be achieved by adopting the Social Attention and Communication Surveillance (SACS) tool utilised by Victorian maternal Child Health nurses.

Training should equip providers with:

  • skills and resources to educate families about autism
  • a personalised pathway plan immediately upon diagnosis
  • a dedicated module to address possible gender bias in diagnosis.

Recommendation 7: Funding sources such as Thriving Kids should fund supports that involve the caregiver(s), not only direct supports for the child. This includes supports which upskill caregivers to better support their Autistic child and supports for the caregiver’s own wellbeing. For example, the Bloom program.

Recommendation 8: The NSW Government should support the development of local, co-developed and culturally appropriate supports for priority cohorts including First Nations peoples and culturally and linguistically diverse communities. This should include:

  • culturally safe diagnostic and support pathways, co-designed with community
  • translation and cultural adaptation of resources into a range of languages
  • provider supports to deliver culturally appropriate autism screening and assessment, including practical resources such as interpreters
  • community-based engagement built on trust and understanding. For example, the Taageero Hore Study model.

(A) ROLE OF SERVICES & SUPPORTS ON A CHILD’S DEVELOPMENT, HEALTH & WELLBEING

Foundational and disability supports play a critical role in shaping Autistic children’s development, health and wellbeing across their lifetime. This section presents evidence on two programs: a parent-mediated anxiety prevention program (CLK-CUES), and inclusive physical activity (FitSkills).

REDUCING ANXIETY TO IMPROVE SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AND ATTAINMENT

Australians without disability consistently report higher educational attainment than Autistic Australians.5 Research identifies anxiety as a driver that significantly impacts the educational attainment of Autistic students, negatively impacts learning, and can increase challenges with classroom communication. 6 The majority of parents (77.6%) reported in an Australian study that their Autistic child (aged 6–13 years) experienced anxiety at school.7 Our research shows that Autistic students’ anxiety is the strongest and most consistent predictor of current and future school attendance.8

Importantly, we have shown that delivering an anxiety prevention program to parents of young Autistic preschoolers significantly reduces attendance challenges. CLK-CUES is a parent-mediated program to reduce anxiety in Autistic preschoolers9 We found that Autistic children whose parents received the CLK-CUES had significantly higher attendance rates and lower separation anxiety at school compared to the control group. These children reported significantly fewer days off due to school refusal and/or distress. These results show that a low cost, accessible and autism-specific program (CLK-CUES) can be successfully implemented to not only reduce anxiety in Autistic preschoolers but also improve their school attendance once they transition into school.

SUPPORTS TO IMPROVE PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Physical activity is central to children’s health, wellbeing and social connection. Yet, there is a significant research-to-practice gap in the availability of evidence-based, inclusive physical activity programs for young people with disability, including Autistic people. Despite clear evidence showing the positive impact of physical activity on health and social outcomes, many young Autistic people are unable to participate in recommended levels due to a lack of inclusive programs. Young Autistic people experience poorer health and wellbeing, are more socially isolated, and experience lower physical quality of life compared to their peers, and this quality-of-life declines over time.10 Accessible physical activity supports therefore play a vital role in protecting and improving Autistic

5 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2022) 6 Ambrose et al (2021;2024); den Houting et al (2022) 7 Adams et al (2019) 8 Adams et al (2025) 9 Adams et al (2025a) 10 Lawson et al (2020)

children’s development, health and wellbeing across childhood and beyond. An example of an evidence-based program is FitSkills.

FitSkills: Improving health, wellbeing, and social connections through mentor- supported exercise FitSkills is an evidence-based, 12-week community exercise program that pairs young people (aged 13-25) with disabilities with mentors at local gyms. While FitSkills involves direct participation, the program’s core mechanism is capability building. It upskills mentors to develop a better understanding of, and a more positive attitude towards, disability, and supports sustained engagement in physical activity. Feedback from young people with disability who participated in the program was very positive, and participants showed a 25% increase in physical activity.

“…it allows me to keep things off my mind and get out stress by coming to the gym and exercising.” - FitSkills participant

“He was friendly, and he helps me stay calm.” - Participant, Autistic male with intellectual disability, 16 years11

FitSkills has been translated into community practice:

  1. FitSkills21, now run by Down Syndrome Victoria as a NDIS service12
  2. FitSkills @ OTARC – is engaging Autistic young people living in 4 regional Victorian centres: Bendigo, Shepparton, Albury/Wodonga and Mildura.

FitSkills demonstrates that relatively small changes in support and structure can make a big difference.

(B) SERVICE TYPES & SUPPORTS AVAILABLE & MEASURES TO IMPROVE EFFECTIVENESS, AVAILABILITY & ACCESS

Improving the effectiveness, availability and accessibility of supports for children and young people with disability, including Autistic people, requires direct, evidence-based programs. A suite of evidence-based programs and resources already exist, most developed and tested in other jurisdictions, and their delivery models are transferable and highly scalable. Adopting these programs could:

  • improve the effectiveness of available services by replacing or enhancing current approaches with evaluated, evidence-based programs designed specifically for children with disability

11 Shields et al (2026) 12 https://www.downsyndrome.org.au/vic/dsv-fitskills/

6 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

  • expand availability by drawing on workforces and settings that already exist in the community – education.
  • extend accessibility by reducing cost, distance and waitlist barriers through low-cost, community-embedded programs that can reach metropolitan, regional, rural and remote communities.

NSW has the opportunity to adopt, adapt and locally implement existing programs such as:

  1. Learning About Neurodiversity at School (LEANS):¹³ A free, evidence-based, teacher-delivered curriculum that introduces neurodiversity concepts to children aged 8-11 through hands-on activities, stories, videos and student resources. Launched in the United Kingdom in 2022, preliminary evaluation shows that children gained new knowledge about neurodiversity and attitudes improved. Teachers and students thought the program was a good idea.

Reframing Autism is adapting LEANS to the Australian context and curriculum. An advisory group of teachers, neurodivergent people, First Nations representatives, and young people will guide the adaptation. OTARC will be independently evaluating Leans Australia, supported by the Australian Government’s Department of Health, Disability and Aging funding under the Inclusion and Accessibility Fund. This evaluation will provide evidence on the feasibility and effectiveness of the adapted LEANS programs in Australian schools.

  1. CLK-CUES: An autism-specific program for parents of Autistic preschoolers that reduces anxiety and improves school attendance. Description in ToR a.

  2. SelfSense: An occupational therapy-based self-regulation programme designed for whole-classroom implementation in Australian schools. Description in ToR e.

  3. The SENSIBLE Approach: Provides educators with a practical guide to better understand and address sensory processing challenges in the classroom, ensuring all students are included in education. Description in ToR f.

  4. Bloom: A co-designed, neurodiversity-affirming support program that improves the quality of life and wellbeing of Autistic children and their families. Description in ToR d.

(C) ROLE OF DIAGNOSTIC SERVICES, EXISTING GAPS & BARRIERS, & MEASURES TO IMPROVE EFFECTIVENESS, AVAILABILITY & ACCESS

Early identification of developmental vulnerability, ready access to intervention within the first 1000 days of life (period of maximum brain malleability), and access to supports for early childhood development are associated with better longer-term outcomes.¹⁴ Our

¹³ Alcorn et al (2024); https://salvesen-research.ed.ac.uk/leans; https://www.leansaustralia.com.au/ ¹⁴ Inguaggiato et al (2017)

research¹⁵ has found that Australian children who receive an autism diagnosis before they turn 2 years are:

  • 3 times less likely to receive a secondary diagnosis of intellectual disability
  • 1.3 times more likely to be in a mainstream school than Autistic children diagnosed later.

Australian children who receive an autism diagnosis and subsequent focussed intervention in the early and critical years (18-36 months) have better school-age developmental outcomes.¹⁶

Diagnostic services therefore function as the critical bridge between screening (e.g. child and family health service development and behaviour checks) and early intervention.

As stated in the Autism CRC National Guideline for the assessment and diagnosis of autism in Australia,¹⁷ diagnostic assessment should include an assessment of functioning to identify individual strengths and support needs which can inform recommendations.

GAPS AND BARRIERS TO TIMELY AUTISM DIAGNOSIS

Australian research has identified delays in autism diagnosis in Australia. Despite the possibility of a reliable autism diagnosis from 18 months, and parents typically noticing differences in their Autistic child’s development before age 2, the average age of diagnosis is 5 years.¹⁸ This is nearly four years after a reliable diagnosis is first possible, and well beyond the period where support can be most beneficial.

Multiple barriers that contribute to this delay are detailed below.

1. Workforce capability

Gaps in provider knowledge about autism impede timely referral for autism assessment in Australia, contributing to significant delays in diagnosis. Australian research has found that:¹⁹

  • only 27% of Autistic children were either diagnosed or referred for an autism assessment when parents first consulted a professional about differences in their child’s development
  • the average delay for families between discussing developmental differences with a professional and the child’s eventual autism diagnosis is over 2 years
  • it takes an average of 8 appointments to receive an autism diagnosis.

These delays stem from systemic misconceptions and missed opportunities within the primary care workforce. Awareness of the very early signs of autism remains limited, with many professionals, including general practitioners and paediatricians, continuing to believe that an autism diagnosis is not possible in children under 3 years of age.²⁰

Additionally, a ‘wait and see’ approach is endorsed by many providers (to see how the

15 Clark et al (2017), Clark et al (2018) 16 Inguaggiato et al (2017) 17 Goodall et al (2023) 18 Gibbs et al (2019) 19 Gibbs et al (2019); Bent et al (2020) 20 Smith et al (2023)

child develops before recommending assessment), despite the known benefits of earlier

diagnosis and support.21

“We found a real reluctance to diagnose early, like we would’ve first gone to the paediatrician when our child was three and again you know she’s say he’s bright but wait a bit.”– parent22

Delays and provider hesitancy to refer for further assessment place the burden on families to request assessment. This can increase parental stress and risks children with developmental vulnerability falling through the cracks when parents do not have the knowledge or confidence to advocate for more comprehensive assessment.23

Validated screening tools have reduced diagnostic delays overseas; however, Australian health providers do not routinely use them.24 Provider training on the use of screening tools would enable appropriate referral decisions and reduce diagnostic delays. Additionally, teachers and early childhood educators are often the first professionals to identify that a child is showing Autistic traits and may benefit from assessment. Research has yet to assess how teachers may identify Autistic traits, or their confidence in discussing these with parents, in an Australian context. However, an Australian study demonstrated that early childhood educators could be successfully involved in universal child mental health screening more broadly.25 Given that educators are already the first to note potential autism or developmental differences for many children - and therefore the starting point for potential diagnosis - it is vital that educators‘ further training and development needs in this area are identified.

  1. Cost and assessment wait times

The cost of assessment and the length of waitlists are significant barriers to diagnosis for families in Australia. In a 2024 study, the average diagnostic cost was over $2000, with a maximum of $8000 in Australia,26 reserving the fastest pathway to supports for those who can afford it. High-income families receive diagnoses earlier, and in a 2023 study they report identifying developmental differences at an earlier age.27 Thus, assessment costs may compound the effects of lower autism knowledge and access to screening for lower-income families, increasing diagnostic delays.

Those who cannot afford the private pathway and rely on public or low-cost services, where wait lists are 8-18 months – longer still for regional families, further delay diagnosis.28 So even children flagged as developmentally vulnerable early can age on waiting lists while the window of maximum developmental benefit narrows.

21 Gibbs et al (2019) 22 Smith et al (2023a) 23 Clark Whitney et al (submitted for publication) 24 Martinez et al (2018); Barbaro et al (2023); Randall et al (2016) 25 McClean et al (2025) 26 De Grandi & Newsom (2024); 51% NSW sample 27 Hussain et al (2023) 28 Smith et al (2023a); Gibbs et al (2019)

3. Location

Where a family lives can determine when their child receives a diagnosis. Rural and regional Australians face longer waits, greater travel distances, and providers express less confidence in recognising and referring for autism. A study of Maternal Child Health Nurses in Victoria found lower confidence discussing autism with parents and caregivers among providers in rural and regional areas.²⁹ This may make providers hesitant to refer for further assessment even where they have identified early autism features. Families who do secure a referral often face the burden of distance. In a study of regional Australians diagnosed predominantly in New South Wales, participants travelled an average of 90km to access services across the assessment process, with some reporting greater than 350km of total travel required.³⁰

To address this barrier OTARC’s Victorian Early Assessment Clinic (VEAC), based on La Trobe’s Bundoora campus, travels to regional Victoria (utilising regional campuses and community infrastructure)³¹ multiple times per year to provide comprehensive developmental assessments. For a full description of the service, see ToR f. Outreach programs involving metropolitan providers travelling to rural and regional areas are a step towards improving access; however, the capacity of these programs needs to be further increased, and particularly in New South Wales where such programs are not yet available.

4. Sex disparities³²

Autistic females tend to be diagnosed less frequently and later than boys, leading to lost opportunities for them to gain early access to services and supports. Australian research indicates 63% of girls reported a diagnosis at age 9 or older, compared to 32% of boys.³³ This diagnostic delay suggests that Autistic people, particularly Autistic women and girls, are missing from national datasets and support systems during critical developmental periods.

Our research on sex differences in the early signs of autism between ages 18 and 24 months and found no difference.³⁴ The ratio of Autistic females to males decreased from 1:15 at 12 months of age to 1:3.2 by 24 months.³⁵ This may indicate that infant females are more likely to be missed than older females and that close monitoring of females is required when conducting developmental monitoring for autism in young children. For this reason, our training for Victorian Maternal and Child Health Nurses on the early signs of autism has a dedicated module to address possible gender bias in diagnosis. For a full description of the Victorian and Tasmanian rollout see ToR f and for a description of the research underpinning the training see ToR g.

29 Gore et al (2024) 30 De Grandi & Newsom (2024) 31 https://otarc.blogs.latrobe.edu.au/making-regional-victorian-autism-assessments-accessible/ 32 Sex refers to the chromosomal, gonadal and anatomical characteristics associated with biological sex. 33 Richdale et al (2022) 34 Hollier et al (2018); 197 infants and toddlers (44 female:153 male) 35 Barbaro et al (2021)

10 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

5. Lack of culturally appropriate diagnostic pathways for First Nations and culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD)

For First Nations and culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) families, additional barriers can stand between developmental differences and diagnosis, including:

  • Recognition of the early signs of autism: Differences in cultural expectations for behaviour and child development can mean the early signs of autism are recognised differently or later. Parents of Autistic children from CALD families reported first noticing developmental differences significantly later than parents from a non-CALD background³⁶

  • Accessing services: Australian CALD and First Nations families are generally less likely to access available medical services due to structural barriers and lack of culturally appropriate services and may therefore miss out on routine child developmental screening.³⁷

  • Help-seeking: Shame and stigma associated with cultural beliefs about autism may prevent parents from raising concerns with health providers, or from agreeing to further assessment where developmental differences are identified by providers.³⁸

“That’s part of the reason, I think, that our paediatrician didn’t jump to have him diagnosed right from the get-go, because he’s aware of the stigma, the cultural stigma that this stuff has, and he didn’t want to paint him in a particular light that might impact him throughout his life” – Mother of son diagnosed age 3³⁹

First Nations Australian cultural values may support broad acceptance of differences in development, therefore families may not see a need for diagnostic assessment and labelling.⁴⁰ However, under our current support systems, this leaves these families without access. This highlights why engagement must be built on trust and understanding rather than assumptions. Addressing these barriers needs to include: ⁴¹

  • Culturally appropriate resources to support understanding and acceptance of autism and developmental differences among First Nations and CALD communities. For example, Positive Partnerships worked with a First Nations Reference Group to develop “Autism. Our kids, our stories: Voices of Aboriginal parents across Australia”, a resource to support awareness through sharing First Nations lived experience of autism.

  • Translation of resources into a range of languages.

  • Provider supports to deliver culturally appropriate autism screening and assessment are also needed, including practical resources such as interpreters.

³⁶ Hussain et al (2023) ³⁷ Khatri et al (2022); Ou et al (2010) ³⁸ Lilley et al (2020); Smith et al (2023) ³⁹ Clark-Whitney et al (submitted; electronic Supplement 2) ⁴⁰ Lilley et al (2020); Parker et al (2014) ⁴¹ Positive Partnerships (2018); Khatri et al (2022)

Families from refugee and immigrant backgrounds can face socioeconomic disadvantage, limited social support networks, stigma, and challenges accessing healthcare and disability services. For example, despite Australia’s growing cultural diversity, there has been limited research examining the experiences of East African families navigating autism diagnosis, early supports and service systems. The study described below clearly demonstrates the need for culturally responsive Autism identification and diagnostic pathways, accessible post-diagnostic and early supports, improved service navigation, and greater community awareness and understanding of autism. It also demonstrates the importance of involving communities directly in the design, interpretation and translation of research and services.

Taageero Hore Study: Improving culturally responsive Autism supports for East African families This co-designed study, undertaken by OTARC in partnership with East African community, explored the experiences of raising an Autistic child in Australia, including:

  • cultural understandings of child development, autism and disability
  • experiences of diagnosis and service access
  • the impact of these experiences on children and families.

Five overarching themes were identified:

  1. personal struggle and self-discovery
  2. navigating complex systems
  3. burden of stigma and cultural and social pressure
  4. parenting challenges and long-term vulnerability
  5. advocacy, resilience and hopes for change.

Parents described diagnostic delays, financial strain, high caregiving demands, sleep disruption, difficulty navigating complex service systems, limited access to appropriate supports, and stigma within both their communities and broader society. These experiences were associated with fear, guilt, shame, confusion and self-doubt. Families also described drawing on faith, advocacy, emotional support and personal resilience.

A major translation output of the project was the Taageero Hore Study Community Event, hosted by La Trobe University in partnership with the East African Women’s Foundation at the Ilays Community Heritage Centre in Braybrook, Victoria. The research team shared findings directly with the community through culturally grounded discussions involving families, elders, community members, service providers, researchers and people with lived experience.

The event was held around a specially reconstructed Aqal Soomaali (pictured below), the traditional Somali home, which provided a culturally meaningful setting for conversations about research, autism, lived experience, service access and future priorities. The program included discussion of the study findings, a panel bringing together researchers and community members with lived experience, and a screening of Maangaar Voices’ mini-documentary The One Word That Changed a Somali Community. The event demonstrated how research can move beyond data collection to build trust, strengthen

12 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

community knowledge, support dialogue and ensure findings are returned in ways that are culturally meaningful and accessible.

MEASURES TO IMPROVE EFFECTIVENESS, AVAILABILITY & ACCESS

The following outlines measures to improve the effectiveness, availability and accessibility of diagnostic services by increasing public knowledge and acceptance of autism, embedding neurodiversity-affirming practice, and building workforce capability.

Public awareness of early autism signs

Public health campaigns that increase general public knowledge of autism and reduce stigma are an important universal strategy to improve access to early diagnosis.

Given that lack of knowledge of autism features can delay recognition of early autism by parents and providers, increasing knowledge of autism features can:

  • make parents more likely to notice early signs and raise them with a health provider
  • dispel inaccurate beliefs that contribute to provider hesitancy to refer for autism assessment.

Conversely, autism stigma can:

  • deter some parents from informing health providers when they have observed differences in their child’s behaviour or development
  • contribute to provider hesitancy to refer for further assessment due to concerns about labelling a child with a diagnosis perceived as negative
  • contribute to caregiver hesitancy to engage with recommended assessment.

Internationally, digital resources that provide information about autism with positive framing have shown the capacity to improve autism knowledge and acceptance among the general public. For example, the Sesame Street “See Amazing in All Children” online

initiative.42 A New South Wales public health campaign promoting knowledge of the early signs of autism, paired with autism acceptance (not just awareness), offers a means of addressing diagnostic barriers at a population level.

Neurodiversity-affirming diagnostic practice

Many diagnostic services operate from a deficit-based framework with a clinically siloed workforce. This framework focuses on identifying impairment rather than understanding neurodivergent children’s strengths, needs, and experiences. For Autistic children and their families, this can make the assessment process alienating rather than affirming, a first contact with a system that frames their identity through a lens of deficit. Our Victorian Early Assessment Clinic’s approach is different. We deliver a multidisciplinary assessment grounded in a neurodiversity-affirming practice model. One parent captured the impact of this approach:

“My experience throughout this process with you has felt very safe and affirming.”

For a full description of how the VEAC best-practice model of care please see ToR f.

Professional capacity building

Among Maternal Child Health Nurses in Victoria, previous autism training was the strongest predictor of autism knowledge and self-efficacy in identifying children at higher autism likelihood, while knowledge of autism community resources was the strongest predictor of confidence discussing autism with parents and caregivers.43 This highlights the benefit of training and clear information regarding available resources in addressing workforce gaps.

(D) GAPS & BARRIERS TO ACCESSING EARLY

CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION & THEIR IMPACT

PARENT KNOWLEDGE OF AUTISM AND AUTISM SERVICES

Parents’ understanding of autism and the supports available to their child significantly affects the supports the child receives, as well as how the parent supports the child. Many parents have very limited understanding of autism at the time of their child’s diagnosis. Australian parents have reported receiving little to no information about what autism is, or the next steps and relevant support options following diagnosis:44

“You’re not given a pathway at a paediatrician’s office on what you should do next. That’s solely up to the parent, and you go home and you Google” – Mother of daughter diagnosed age 3

When caregivers are not given adequate guidance, this risks children and families missing out on important supports or accessing inaccurate information online. The

42 Anthony et al (2022); Ha et al (2022;2026) 43 Gore et al (2024) 44 Clark Whitney et al (submitted; quote p. 11)

Autism Association of Australia website Autism: What Next?45 provides a guide to relevant evidence-based resources. Professionals should recommend caregivers to access this guide as a starting point following diagnosis.

Culturally and linguistically diverse Australian communities may encounter additional barriers to understanding and accessing relevant supports.46 It is therefore important that relevant resources are translated and adapted to the needs of different cultural groups. For example, a post-diagnosis Autism Information Pack was recently trialled with a small group of CALD families in the South Western Sydney Local Health District and showed initial evidence of practical benefit and cultural relevance.47

Supports for neurodivergent children should involve the family, so that caregivers can practice and reiterate program strategies and support generalisation across contexts.48 Involving caregivers in supports also reduces the number of direct support hours required to facilitate the same as compared to supports involving the provider and child only and therefore reduces the associated cost.49 Despite the benefits of caregiver involvement, most supports available to Autistic children in Australia have focused on provision of supports directly to the child with little to no family involvement.50 This emphasis on direct delivery of supports to the child does not reflect the evidence base for the benefits of family involvement. It has limited caregivers’ access to programs to build their own understanding of autism and how to support their child, or to support their mental health and wellbeing.51 An example of a support program for Autistic children by building caregiver knowledge and skills is described below.

Bloom: Co-designed support to improve child and parent quality of life

Bloom is an award-winning,52 neurodiversity-affirming support program that improves the quality of life and wellbeing of Autistic children and their families. Bloom was co-produced by a neurodiverse team, including Autistic, otherwise neurodivergent and neurotypical researchers, and in collaboration with Autistic-led and non-Autistic-led organisations. The content of Bloom was based on 70 hours of interviews with Autistic adults and parents of Autistic children, ensuring the program is grounded in lived experience.

The program consists of eight weekly, two-hour sessions co-delivered by an allied health professional and an Autistic Guide (Autistic adult). This co-delivery model is central to Bloom’s success, bringing together professional insight and lived experience to build trust, connection, and shared understanding. Bloom is delivered to parents in a group setting.

45 https://www.autismwhatnext.com.au/ 46 Smith et al (2023; 2024) 47 Kish et al (2025) 48 Green et al (2022) 49 Lord et al (2010) 50 Gavidia-Payne (2020) 51 Gerhardt et al (2025) 52 2024 Autism CRC Inclusive Research Practice Award

OTARC 15

Parents who participated in Bloom consistently described it as a safe, inclusive, and transformative space.

“I am in awe of how well they facilitated this. Because of all… the different communication ways and the extremely safe space that they created was just brilliant.” – Parent

Feedback from parents, Autistic Guides, and allied health professionals showed Bloom was:

  • feasible (high retention, attendance, and completion rates),
  • acceptable to participants, and
  • delivered with high fidelity.

Importantly, parents reported improvements in multiple aspects of their child’s functioning:

  • Global health
  • Emotional distress (depression, anger)
  • Wellbeing (life satisfaction, meaning and purpose)
  • Social functioning (family).

Beyond benefits to the child, parents also reported improvements in their own wellbeing, and in the family’s overall wellbeing and quality of life.

Bloom demonstrates that building parents’ understanding of how to support their Autistic child through neurodiversity-affirming educational content can have a powerful impact on the child, the parent, and the overall family.

SERVICES FOR FIRST NATIONS AUSTRALIANS

There is a need for co-developed, culturally appropriate services for First Nations Australians:53

  • there are low rates of First Nations participation in disability services due to a lack of culturally appropriate services
  • First Nations communities may understand disability and autism differently than Western conceptualisations.

Therefore, to effectively support Autistic children and young people from First Nations communities, culturally safe programs must be developed through genuine co-production and Indigenous leadership. Existing programs are sparse. In response to this need, Positive Partnerships, along with a First Nations Reference Group, has developed resources to support Autistic First Nations People and delivers Yarning and Sharing about Autism workshops across Australia.54

State and territory governments can improve existing services by working with First Nations peoples. Below is an example of how existing workforce capability training can

53 Ravindran et al (2017) 54 https://www.positivepartnerships.com.au/resources/first-nations

16 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

be adapted and supplemented with culturally appropriate resources to provide safe

diagnostic and support for Māori families in Aotearoa New Zealand.

Early autism identification and support in Aotearoa New Zealand

In 2023, we trained more than 300 health and education professionals across the Wellington region in the Social Attention and Communication Surveillance (SACS) tool,55 in partnership with the Autism Clinic, Te Herenga Waka-Victoria University of Wellington.

Trained health and education professionals used SACS to identify early signs of autism and refer children directly to the Autism Clinic, enabling families to access support without having to wait for a formal autism diagnosis. Sixty children and their whānau (family) were offered 20 weeks of free early support, addressing the gap between first developmental concerns, diagnosis and access to services.

Referred families were offered Raupī te Raupō, an early support program the Autism Clinic developed specifically for children and whānau in Aotearoa. The program was co- designed with Autistic and Māori advisory groups. Families received tailored weekly coaching, including practical sessions that supported parents and caregivers to interact, play, and use strategies matched to their child’s needs.

This pilot shows how systematic developmental monitoring can be link directly to immediate, culturally responsive early support, rather than making access dependent on completing lengthy diagnostic pathways. It also demonstrates how SACS can be embedded within locally designed service systems to improve early identification and access to support.

(E) OPPORTUNITIES TO INCREASE ENGAGEMENT

ACROSS SECTORS & IMPROVED COLLABORATION

ACROSS GOVERNMENT AND NON-GOVERNMENT

SERVICES

SELFSENSE

SelfSense is a whole-class self-regulation program developed by La Trobe’s School of Education and OTARC in partnership with the University of Newcastle. It shows how allied health and education sectors can work together in school settings to improve student participation and build teacher capacity. The program brings occupational therapists into classrooms to work alongside teachers, creating opportunities for shared planning, co-teaching, observation, feedback and problem-solving.56

This model creates opportunities for engagement across sectors by moving occupational therapy support beyond isolated consultation or individual pull-out intervention. Instead, occupational therapists contribute their expertise within the

55 https://www.latrobe.edu.au/otarc/research/autism-detection-diagnosis/social-attention-communication 56 Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2025, 2026)

setting where students learn, while teachers develop the knowledge and confidence to continue applying regulation strategies in everyday classroom activities.57

Collaboration across government and non-government schools

SelfSense has been piloted in two rounds58 across government and non-government schools. The 2023 pilot was delivered in three regional Victorian schools: a government specialist school, a non-government faith-based primary school and a government secondary college. The 2025 pilot was delivered in a government primary school in metropolitan Melbourne and a specialist school for students with intellectual disability.

These pilots demonstrate the potential for a common whole-class framework to be adapted across different school sectors, student cohorts and educational contexts. The approach is particularly relevant to inclusive education because meaningful inclusion involves more than physical placement; it also requires opportunities for students to participate, belong and exercise agency within their learning environment.59

The program provides a practical structure for cross-sector engagement. In the 2025 pilot, participating teachers and support staff completed three hours of professional development, followed by seven weekly classroom sessions delivered by a qualified occupational therapist. Briefings before each session and debriefings afterwards enabled the occupational therapist and teachers to share observations, review student responses and adapt strategies to the needs of each classroom.60

This sustained contact supported reciprocal professional learning. Teachers developed a stronger understanding of self-regulation, sensory processing and why particular strategies work, while the occupational therapist became better able to adapt strategies to each classroom’s students, physical environment and time of day.61

As one teacher explained:

“The why this works, rather than just telling us what to do… it was explaining… why we were doing this, or why that might work for different circumstances.” - Classroom teacher 3, 2025

This form of collaboration also supported a shift in how teachers interpreted behaviour in relation to physiological state, sensory input, task demands and the classroom environment, rather than viewing behaviour only through a compliance-based lens.62 This shared understanding, including a common language for regulation, can strengthen communication between education and allied health professionals and support more coordinated responses to students’ participation needs.63

57 Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2025) 58 Southall et al (2025;2026) 59 Edström et al (2024); Lakkala et al (2024); Maxwell et al (2018); UNESCO (2017) 60 Southall et al (2026) 61 Griffin et al (2026); Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2026) 62 Lane (2020); Philpott-Robinson et al (2025); Southall et al (2025) 63 Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2025)

18 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

Engagement for all students

SelfSense uses a universal, whole-classroom approach so regulation strategies are available to all students, rather than being associated only with students with identified additional needs. This can reduce stigma and support a classroom culture in which differences in sensory, emotional and attentional needs are recognised as part of normal classroom variation.64 Teachers described this change in access to regulation support:

“It changed our mindset about who should, like, who can be accessing those regulation strategies… I think it is everyone.” – Classroom teacher 2, 2025

Pilot testing in 2023, the program demonstrated measurable improvements:

  • a 65% decrease in work output issues
  • a 57% reduction in teasing behaviours
  • a 45% decrease in tardiness.

Teachers involved in the 2025 pilot also reported that students began to identify their own regulatory needs and select strategies.65 These observations suggest that the program may support students to participate more actively in classroom learning by developing body awareness, self-regulation skills and agency.66

SelfSense offers a universal, evidence-informed, whole-of-classroom approach that has the potential to support student wellbeing, strengthen participation in learning, reduce classroom disruption and promote a more inclusive and supportive education system for all.67

(F) OTHER GOVERNMENT OR BEST PRACTICE CHILD

DEVELOPMENT & EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION SERVICE MODELS & PROGRAMS

Below are examples of other government and best-practice child development and early childhood service models and programs, including:

  • a best-practice neurodiversity-affirming diagnostic clinic delivered in partnership with the Victorian Government
  • A statewide model for accessible learning that can benefit students with sensory sensitivities – Queensland Department of Education
  • A workforce training rollout to all Maternal Child Health Nurses in Victoria and Tasmania.

64 Griffin et al (2026); Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2025, 2026) 65 Southall et al (2026) 66 Eisenberg et al (2010); Lakkala et al (2024); Southall et al (2026) 67 Lakkala et al (2024); Lynch et al (2023); Southall et al (2025, 2026); UNESCO (2017)

VICTORIAN EARLY ASSESSMENT CLINIC (VEAC): A BEST-PRACTICE EARLY ASSESSMENT AND PATHWAYS MODEL

The Victorian Early Assessment Clinic (VEAC) was established within OTARC in 2023 as part of the Victorian Autism Plan, with support from the Victorian Government. The VEAC provides an affordable, comprehensive needs assessment and differential diagnosis for children aged 12-36 months who have a high likelihood of Autism. Families can be referred by Maternal and Child Health nurses, medical or allied health practitioners, or self-refer directly, reducing unnecessary barriers to accessing assessment. The multidisciplinary team works within a neurodiversity-affirming practice model, with research and ongoing evaluation embedded within the service

The model uses a five-step assessment pathway combining telehealth and face-to-face multidisciplinary assessment. This includes a SACS assessment, an in-depth developmental and family interview, play-based and developmental assessments, and a feedback consultation. Families receive a comprehensive report, diagnosis where appropriate, recommendations for supports and services, and a personalised pathways plan, ensuring assessment is linked to the child’s broader developmental, and support needs rather than diagnosis being treated as an endpoint.

The model has also been extended into regional Victoria, recognising that geography creates an additional barrier to timely assessment. VEAC has delivered outreach assessments in Bendigo, Shepparton, Mildura and Wodonga, using telehealth for components that can be completed remotely and bringing the multidisciplinary team into local communities for in-person assessment. In 2025 alone, VEAC provided neurodiversity-affirming assessments to 105 families, alongside targeted regional initiatives that enabled families to access assessment without travelling to metropolitan Melbourne.

VEAC provides a model for how governments can link early developmental monitoring with accessible, multidisciplinary assessment and clear pathways to support. Its combination of early identification, low-barrier referral, neurodiversity-affirming multidisciplinary practice, telehealth, regional outreach and personalised post- assessment pathways provides a useful model for improving equitable access to child development and early childhood supports.

SENSORY-FRIENDLY LEARNING: STRATEGIES FOR INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS

Sensory differences are a core diagnostic criterion for autism and can make everyday school environments very challenging. Factors such as noise, crowds, unpredictable routines, and a lack of quiet or low-sensory spaces can contribute to overstimulation, disengagement, and reduced learning capacity.68 These challenges can significantly affect Autistic students’ ability to participate fully in classroom activities and playgrounds. Limiting their access to learning on equal terms with their peers.

68 Price & Romualdez (2025); Roberts et al (2022); Kasztelan Chapman et al (2025)

20 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

“I felt closed in and like I couldn’t breathe as there were so many people. It was so difficult being in there all day.’ (I/SJb/p6)”⁶⁹

Fostering inclusive learning spaces through reasonable adjustments and tailored strategies is essential for supporting Autistic students’ full educational participation.

In response to an OTARC-led rapid evidence assessment of the

Use of weighted vests or toys to

improve attention to task in a

6-year-old student with ADHD.

literature on sensory processing challenges in schools commissioned by the Queensland Department of Education, we

developed a unique best-practice framework — a SENSIBLE

approach: SENSory-Informed Best practices for Learning.⁷⁰ The

approach provides educators, including teachers, learning

support staff, allied health professionals (e.g. occupational

therapists, physiotherapists), principals, and teachers’ aides, with

a practical guide to better understand and address sensory

processing challenges in the classroom, ensuring all students are

included in education. Grounded in evidence, the SENSIBLE

approach translates research findings into accessible, actionable strategies that can be

implemented across diverse school contexts.

The SENSIBLE approach is now implemented throughout Queensland

government schools, reaching >561,000 students and building capacity in

65,000 FTE teaching staff.

By embracing this approach, the Queensland Department of Education is breaking

barriers in education, providing a model for accessible learning that can benefit students

with sensory sensitivities and, ultimately, all students in the Queensland education

system. Its reach across Queensland demonstrates both the scalability of the approach

and educators’ appetite for practical, evidence-based guidance on sensory inclusion.

TRANSFORMING AUTISM CARE IN VICTORIA AND TASMANIA:

IMPROVING ACCESSIBILITY AND EARLY SUPPORTS

In 2018, OTARC trained all maternal and child health (MCH) nurses (≈1700) in Victoria

using the SACS to improve access to autism assessment, diagnosis, and early supports.

This training was a commitment in the Victorian Autism Plan⁷¹ funded by the (then)

Department of Education and Training. Over 90% of MCH nurses agreed that the training

was clear and of high quality, and most would recommend it to a colleague.⁷² Post-

training, MCH nurses effectively incorporated SACS-R assessments into their work

practice, completing 82,581 assessments in the first 6 months.

⁶⁹ Goodall (2018)

⁷⁰ Lane et al (2023); Unwin et al (2024)

⁷¹ Victorian Government (2019)

⁷² Gilbert et al (2023)

A key component of the program’s success was creating and distributing the parent resource booklet “Promoting Social Attention, Communication, and Interaction Skills”.73 Over 40,000 copies have been distributed to all MCH centres across Victoria since September 2019, ensuring every family visiting their MCH centres receives a copy. This has contributed to capacity-building in parents, opened dialogue between parents, MCH nurses, and medical practitioners, and empowered families to actively participate in their child’s developmental journey.

All Victorian children now receive comprehensive monitoring for early behavioural signs of autism during their routine universal child health visits, with over 1.8 million SACS checks completed between 2018 and 2026.

This proactive approach identifies developmental differences and concerns early, leading to quicker diagnoses and targeted, timely supports. The Victorian rollout highlighted the importance of developmental monitoring at a national level. The Federal Standing Select Committee on Autism recommended that this training be rolled out nationally in 2022.74

Building on the success of the Victorian rollout, OTARC has supported the expansion of SACS implementation across Tasmania in 2025. Through partnerships with the Tasmanian Department of Health, Child Health and Parenting Service (CHaPS), University of Tasmania and primary care providers, more than 150 child health nurses, 21 general practitioners, allied health clinicians across three major hospitals, and speech pathology students have been trained in SACS. These initiatives strengthen statewide developmental surveillance, improve referral pathways, and support earlier identification of autism and access to timely assessment and early supports for Tasmanian children and their families.

(G) WORKFORCE ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT & EARLY CHILDHOOD INTERVENTION SECTORS

Earlier diagnosis of autism is possible by training professionals to identify its early signs as part of routine interactions families have with health, education, and care professionals through services such as the Child and Adolescent Health Service (CAHS) – Community Child Health and early childhood education and care.

Our research has significantly improved how professionals are trained to screen for autism in very young children. The SACS studies are the foundation of the SACS-R (revised; 11 to 30 months old) and SACS-Preschool (3.5 to 5 years old) training programs.75 The SACS method identifies a set of behaviours or ‘early markers’ that are

73 Department of Health (2019) 74 Commonwealth of Australia (2022) 75 https://www.latrobe.edu.au/otarc/training#component 1687931

22 La Trobe University’s Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre

characteristic of children on the autism spectrum, from as young as 12 months old. 82% of babies who show early behavioural signs of autism at 12, 18 and 24 months using the SACS go on to receive an autism diagnosis.76

The SACS-R IS THE MOST ACCURATE TOOL FOR EARLY AUTISM IDENTIFICATION IN THE WORLD.

To see how this SACS training has been rolled out in Victoria and Tasmania, see ToR f.

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Note: OTARC researchers are bolded.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

LA TROBE UNIVERSITY

La Trobe University undertakes world-class, high-impact research that addresses the major issues of our time. La Trobe placed in the top 250 universities globally (Cybermetrics Lab, 2026) and leads Australia in Developmental Disability research (The Australian Research Magazine, 2021–2026). Its commitment to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals also reflects recognised global leadership in health and equality, with a ranking of 3rd worldwide for Good Health and Wellbeing, 7th for Gender Equality and 10th for Reduced Inequalities (2026).

SCHOOL OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PUBLIC HEALTH

La Trobe University’s School of Psychology and Public Health supports impactful, inclusive research focused on employment. The School fosters expertise across psychology, counselling, therapy, and public health. It is strongly committed to social equity, leading innovative, multidisciplinary research that addresses complex challenges across the life course. It has extensive partnerships with industry, government, and community, particularly in regional and underserved areas, as well as real-world translation and policy relevance.

THE OLGA TENNISON AUTISM RESEARCH CENTRE (OTARC)

OTARC is situated in the School of Psychology and Public Health at La Trobe University in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 2008 with the generous support of Mrs Olga Tennison AO, the Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre is Australia’s first, and largest centre, dedicated to autism research. The Centre is committed to creating meaningful change for Autistic people. Its work brings together researchers, professionals, Autistic people and those who support them to turn research into practical supports. The Centre designs and evaluates support programs, services and clinical tools, train professionals, and partner with communities and organisations across Australia and the world.

CONTRIBUTORS

  • Associate Professor Josephine Barbaro
    • Principal Research Fellow and Neurodiversity Affirming Psychologist, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, La Trobe University
    • Dr Barbaro is a co-founder of Australia’s first ‘Early Assessment Clinic’ for autism, focusing on children under 3

years old. Dr Barbaro’s research interests are in the early identification and diagnosis of autism in infants, toddlers, and pre-schoolers, family health and well-being following a diagnosis, and neurodiversity affirming research and practice.

Dr Elysha Clark-Whitney Research Fellow, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, La Trobe University Dr Clark-Whitney is a clinician-researcher, with a focus on improving the lives of Autistic people and their families. Dr Clark-Whitney’s research is aimed at understanding how parents of young autistic children can be empowered to best support their child, with a particular focus on parents’ adjustment to their child’s diagnosis. Dr Clark-Whitney is also a clinical psychology registrar, and certified Parent-Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) therapist.

Dr Dianne Blackwell Post Doctoral Fellow, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, La Trobe University Dr Blackwell’s expertise lies in emotion regulation, self- regulation, and early developmental supports for Autistic children, grounded in over a decade of paediatric occupational therapy practice. Dr Blackwell’s research has contributed to the development of validated outcome measures and practical tools to support multidisciplinary, inclusive practice across health, education, and early intervention settings.

Alex Haschek Research Communications and Impact Coordinator, Olga Tennison Autism Research Centre, La Trobe University Alex is a research translation professional with over a decade of experience spanning education, public health, and psychology.

Relevant United Nations Sustainable Goals

Disclaimer

The information contained in this publication is indicative only. While every effort is made to provide full and accurate information at the time of publication, the University does not give any warranties in relation to the accuracy and completeness of the contents. The University reserves the right to make changes without notice at any time in its absolute discretion, including but not limited to varying admission and assessment requirements, and discontinuing or varying courses. To the extent permitted by law, the University does not accept responsibility of liability for any injury, loss, claim or damage arising out of or in any way connected with the use of the information contained in this publication or any error, omission or defect in the information contained in this publication.

La Trobe University is a registered provider under the Commonwealth Register of Institutions and Courses for Overseas Students (CRICOS). La Trobe University CRICOS Provider Code Number 00115M

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