Submission 42 — Commissioner for Children and Young People – Western Australia — Select Committee on Autism | External submission

QOp @ NO} Commissioner for Children and Young People

C@O®) Western Australia

Our reference: 20/2695

Senate Select Committee on Autism

Department of the Senate

PO Box 6100

Parliament House

CANBERRA ACT 2601

By email: autism.sen@aph.gov.au

Dear Members of the Senate Select Committee on Autism,

RE: Inquiry into services, supports and life outcomes for autistic people and the need for a National Autism Strategy

As Commissioner for Children and Young People I work closely with children and young people, their families, community and government to monitor and improve the wellbeing of children and young people up to the age of 18 years across Western Australia. To do this, I undertake consultation projects and research, and publish reports and resources to positively influence legislation, policy, services and attitudes impacting children and young people.

In order to ensure that the voices of WA children and young people are considered in the Committee’s inquiry into services, supports and life outcomes for autistic people, I consulted with WA children and young people with autism to hear their feedback on different aspects of the terms of reference.

Twelve children and young people shared their views and experiences, and these are captured within my report, Speaking Out About Autism — the views of children and young people with autism in WA. I encourage you to take the time to review this report and hear the important insights shared by children and young people with autism.

Complementing my Speaking Out About Autism report, I provide further comment to the Inquiry on selected items from the terms of reference.

Diagnosis - current approaches, barriers and best practice (terms of reference a. d.)

Children and young people with autism have the equal right to access consistent, affordable, timely and best practice autism diagnosis as early as possible giving them the highest level of appropriate supports throughout their lives. Article 23 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) stipulates that governments must do all they can to support children and young people with a disability to, “live a full and decent life in conditions which ensure dignity, promote self-reliance and facilitate the child’s active participation in the community.”

Ground Floor | Alvan Street Subiaco Western Australia 6008

ccyp.wa.gov.au

Not all children and young people have the same level of access to diagnostic assessment and interventions in Australia as others due to the different standards of autism diagnosis, support services, effectiveness and costs. Certain groups of children and young people may face high levels of disadvantage and receive less support for autism. These cohorts include, but are not limited to, those who are Aboriginal; living with chronic health conditions; living in remote areas; living in poverty; from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds; identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans or intersex (LGBTI); in the child protection system; or involved in the justice system. These children and young people have distinct needs and experiences which may present additional challenges or barriers in getting access to a diagnosis and essential support. For example, a child or young person who is on the autism spectrum and is Aboriginal, is more likely than a non-Aboriginal child to have unmet needs post-diagnosis, or to be misdiagnosed or excluded from the diagnosis process altogether. 2 Therefore it is vital that the Committee gives special consideration to disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people to ensure that their unique needs and experiences are prioritised within a National Autism Strategy.

The National Guideline for the Assessment and Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders in Australia (National Guideline) uses an evidence-based, step-by-step process for autism assessment and post-diagnostic support, and is considered to be clinical best practice internationally and in Australia.3 Commissioned by the National Disability Insurance Agency and approved by the National Health and Medical Research Council, the National Guideline was developed as a consistent guideline for autism diagnosis across Australia, and to, “provide the community with greater equity in access to a rigorous and comprehensive assessment, transparency in the diagnostic and decision-making processes, and confidence in the accuracy and reliability of diagnostic decisions.“4

Full and consistent implementation of an evidence based protocol such as the National Guideline has the potential to provide all Australians with equitable access to quality care for autism assessment and post-diagnostic support throughout all life-stages. This would need to be consistently implemented and practiced nationally across different states and territories and across different sectors.

The children and young people I consulted considered their diagnosis of autism as an important milestone that improved their quality of life by; assisting with understanding themselves, validating their experiences and improving their confidence. Participants recalled times before their diagnosis when they struggled to understand their conditions, and also articulated how much easier their life was after diagnosis. Moreover, participants identified that their communication and interactions with others were improved when they received autism specific support services to overcome difficulties.

Currently Australia does not have a consistent approach to diagnosing autism; with approaches being largely uncoordinated, protocols varying considerably, and application of international best practice guidelines being used inconsistently.5 Diagnostic practices differ between states, and the inconsistency of diagnostic standards between sectors further disadvantages children who endure delayed diagnosis and a lack of funding and support.

Families seeking reliable diagnostic outcomes and early intervention for their children, are confronted with a disparity of processes and service experiences, often long waiting times, and a range of expenses.6 The irregularities in autism diagnosis can compound other wellbeing issues already facing disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people and their families, given that quality care is determined by where they live and whether they are public or private patients.7

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The quality of health services across all levels of government, public, private and not for profit sectors is vastly different, adding to the confusion and burden of families seeking assistance for autism services. I recently heard from a paediatrician in the public system in rural WA who reported that it is common for families seeking assessment for their children to wait up to 19 months for a preliminary appointment to a paediatric clinic and then face a second waiting period of up to 12 months to complete the assessment. While waiting extended periods for an autism diagnosis, families are unable to access funding and services for important early intervention that can effectively improve developmental outcomes for their children. The paediatrician reported that some regional and remote families stretched themselves to access private health services at a significant cost and were further burdened by taking time away from work or their families to travel long distances to Perth. Further, the paediatrician voiced concerns that in mixed organisations (that provide both adult and paediatric services), specific health services for children and young people can be neglected and autistic children do not receive the focus they deserve.

More broadly, young people with a range of disabilities recently described post-diagnostic support from disability service agencies as confusing, difficult to navigate and hard to find.8 A more collaborative and coordinated framework for autism diagnosis, including pre and post-diagnostic services, could provide earlier and more equitable opportunities for children and their families to access the crucial support they need.9

Disadvantaged and vulnerable children and young people are less likely to access best practice autism diagnosis and post-diagnostic support.10 Aboriginal children with autism and their families for example, are likely to experience further disparity of care when diagnostic practices are culturally inappropriate, inconsistent and uncoordinated.11 Aboriginal families who strive to find help for their children are left to navigate an overly-complex and often costly diagnosis process. Many experience being emotionally stressed by underdiagnoses, excess travel, delayed diagnosis and limited access to post-diagnostic services in remote or regional areas.12

The apparent inconsistencies in autism services provided by Commonwealth, state and local government systems places unnecessary pressure on families seeking expedient and affordable assessment, diagnosis and appropriate intervention for their children. For example inconsistent diagnostic protocols across the country and between clinical practices has impacted negatively on children who may be required to undergo re-assessment when they move interstate or transition into education.13 A consistent guideline implemented throughout Australia, across organisations such as health, mental health, disability services, education and justice could provide streamlined and equitable access to more optimal care and services for children and young people with autism.

Commonwealth, state and local government services and interagencies (terms of reference e. f.)

Children and young people told me they needed service providers such as educators, health and mental health professionals to respond to them with an understanding of their autism conditions, to listen to them, and encourage them to make their own decisions. Participants in our consultation stated they needed autism specific support within each of their core service areas and individualised services from autism support organisations to overcome barriers with education, employment, living independently and participating in community events.

Whilst acknowledging the assistance they receive from caring, competent and capable support people, children and young people also reported a lack of autism awareness within services and the wider community. There is a strong need to build capacity across different sectors and services to improve the engagement and support provided for children and young people with autism. Educational organisations, including early childhood centres, primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, across all sectors, could improve services by implementing policies and practices that demonstrate inclusivity for the varied experiences of autistic children and young people. It is also critical that first responders, including police, paramedics and mental health officers, are trained in autism awareness and best practice to safely and respectfully respond to the specific needs of autistic children and young people.

Encouragingly in WA there are several community initiatives such as Autism West, Autism Association of WA and Camp Autism that deliver services for autistic people to meet specific needs. Wings for Autism also provide a structured program for children who have had negative airport experiences or are anxious about plane travel.14 Airport staff, specifically trained in best practice support for young autistic passengers, who may be overwhelmed by the sensory stresses of airports, provide carefully controlled and positive experiences to overcome fears and allow for more inclusive access to plane travel.

Consistent protocols for assessment and provision of appropriate services by well-trained, caring professionals, across all sectors including Commonwealth, state and local government, have the potential to help families find appropriate help for their children without delay. An organised national strategy that advances autism awareness, both within organisations and publically, and coordinates autism diagnostic assessment and support services, could better meet the needs of autistic children and young people.

Health and mental health services

Health and mental health sectors need to be autism aware. Repeatedly participants pointed out that individuals experience autism differently and need to be individually consulted for solutions to solve their own problems. Being physically and mentally healthy were considered crucial for children and young people, and they described the importance of receiving high quality care from professionals who displayed an understanding of their specific conditions, making them feel at ease, and showed integrity of service. Consultation participants advised that when they had secure connections with open-minded, understanding health practitioners, they felt supported to build confidence in their abilities. Mental health was a particular concern for participants who expressed a demand for autism specific mental health assessment and support from practitioners who take them seriously and show them ways to improve mental health and maintain overall wellbeing. Beneficial support services most commonly identified by our participants were psychologists, speech therapists and occupational therapists (young people explained that they connected with therapists in a range of settings for various purposes). Effective psychological support, received in a range of settings such as school and through NDIS providers, included social and emotional learning strategies such as mindfulness and zones of regulation. Conversely, participants described facing preconceived attitudes and misconceptions about autism within organisations that impacted negatively on their health and wellbeing. A few explained their autism conditions presented barriers to seeking health and mental health services in the community and put them off going to the doctor or to a therapist on their own due to anxiety, sensory overload, fear of crowds, and an inability to use public transport.

Careful consideration of the specific needs of the child or young person within the context of their culture, traditions, belief and values must be respected in the provision of health and mental health services. Children and young people with autism may also have other health or mental health conditions that can further prevent them from receiving appropriate supports or services, including physical health or communication issues or conditions such as Intellectual disability, or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Services need to meet the diverse needs of all children and young people with multiple and complex needs to ensure they are provided with timely and necessary supports. The positive influence that a well-trained, dedicated and consistent health professional can have on a child or youth with autism can be profound. The provision of an accessible health system, populated by knowledgeable, understanding support people, is integral to helping autistic children and their families navigate challenges such as health problems, discrimination, social isolation, bullying, and mental health issues.

Education services

Active and positive engagement in education is fundamental to a strong sense of wellbelng. Early participation in learning reinforces academic aptitudes and skills required to build social relationships that are key to maintaining lifelong mental health and wellbeing. On the other hand, poor engagement with school can result in lower educational outcomes, limited employment opportunities and may lead to social exclusion, drug and alcohol problems, mental health issues, poverty and involvement in the criminal justice system.15 The UNCRC stipulates the right of every child to access the highest level of education, to receive support to participate In education and training, and to be prepared for employment in a way that ensures dignity, promotes self-reliance, and facilities active participation in culture and the community.16 The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 (DDA)17 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005(DSE)18 explicate Australia’s commitment to provide students with disabilities the same level of participation and access to education as their peers while demonstrating acceptance of diversity.

The intention for greater acceptance, inclusion, equitable access and participation of Australian students with disabilities appears to have made some headway into breaking down barriers for autistic children and young people, however educational institutions could increase their knowledge by listening more to people with autism and working collaboratively to consider a new perspective and action in this area.19 The significant need for greater consideration of the needs of students with autism are represented in the figures from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) where 92.3 per cent of autistic students aged between five to 20 years had some level of educational restriction which could include specialised assistance, procedures or equipment. A few students with profound conditions were prevented from attending school at all and 40.8 per cent of autistic students attended mainstream school in special classes or a special school.20

Students with autism experience higher rates of bullying, social isolation and academic underachievement. 21 Their aspirations and educational outcomes are either significantly lower compared to non-autistic students or are largely unknown because many do not participate in standardised testing.22 ABS figures also show that 77.7 per cent of school-aged students up to 20 years with a disability experience barriers to their education. These include issues such as social exclusion (59.8%), problems due to special educational needs (55.3%) and difficulties with communication (51.5%).23

Participants in my consultation told us their schools and tertiary institutions need to better understand autism and to make changes that accommodate students with autism. Almost all

of participants recalled experiences with staff who were ill-equipped to support their specific needs and the majority of children and young people said communicating with others and working in groups were amongst the most difficult aspects of school. Several participants explained that their autism conditions got them into “trouble” and some experienced “a meltdown” when they were unassisted to deal with overwhelming sensory challenges such as loud noises, excessive lighting, or crowds. Children and young people with autism want to be treated fairly, to be listened to, and to feel positive about their future. Participants suggested that if whole educational communities were explicitly taught about autism and were more inclusive and accepting of them, learning environments could be cultivated where students with autism are physically, academically and emotionally safe. More collaborative research into the pedagogical requirements of autistic students, from early childhood to tertiary, would begin to fill the gap of knowledge about the condition, stimulate suitable service provision, and improve life outcomes for autistic children and young people improving their chances of actively engaging in lifelong learning and maintaining meaningful employment.

Employability support services Getting a job is a significant rite of passage for young people, allowing them to publically and economically participate in the wider community. Meaningful employment can immeasurably improve an individual’s social, psychological and financial outcomes throughout their lifetime. ABS figures illustrate the inequity of participation in the workforce for autistic people, where unemployment rates for people with autism are more than three times higher than people with another type of disability and approximately eight times higher than people without a disability.24 The disconnection from the workforce and unemployment of people with a disability in the Australian workforce has been further exacerbated due to the COVID-19 pandemic, where anxiety about day to day living and financial insecurity has been a serious concern for many.25 In my consultation, young people who were eligible for employment had either been looking for work for a significant amount of time or were no longer working due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Common barriers to employment included: sensory sensitivity that precluded them from crowded, noisy places or from catching public transport; communication issues, especially during job interviews; mental health problems such as anxiety and depression; and negative employer attitudes and discrimination in the workplace. The transition from senior school to the workplace had also been challenging for some young people who lost confidence in their abilities after several years of trying to find work. Encouragingly, one young person who was employed at a cafe that is passionate about equal opportunity and flourishing mental health, explained how beneficial it was to work for an employer who understood the autism condition and accommodated specific needs. Employees’ skills and talents were valued in an inclusive environment where patrons were encouraged to show patience and understanding for staff who made meaningful contributions through work. A more equitable workforce in Australia can be created when employers acknowledge the strengths of individuals with autism and embrace their different perspectives. Greater understanding of autism would boost recognition of the capacities of young autistic workers and build capacity to contribute to the Australian economy. Youth justice

Autism conditions such as social and communication difficulties, sensory sensitivities and obsessive behaviours can expose young autistic people to the justice system more than non

autistic young people.26 Some researchers maintain that the autism condition is largely misunderstood by the criminal justice system, and autistic people may not understand the laws they break or comprehend the effect they have on others.27 They argue that autistic characteristics including difficulty communicating and misreading social cues, fixated behaviours and acute sensory sensitivity, may be contributing factors in illegal activities.28

In addition, autistic young people who are excluded from social groups and are unskilled in interpreting another’s intent or mental state may be unwittingly manipulated into criminal activity and not knowing their rights can make them more vulnerable within the justice system, especially if police and other criminal justice professionals are not trained in best practice responses to autistic people. 29

It is well known that young Aboriginal people are over-represented in the criminal justice system30 and there is evidence that young people with cognitive disorders and complex issues are also over-represented in youth justice.31 A child with an unsupported developmental and cognitive disorder may show poor emotional regulation and behaviours that can be misinterpreted by untrained service providers, leading to punitive responses.

The research into experiences of Aboriginal families with autistic children across Australia found that autism is still largely unrecognised within Aboriginal communities and information about the disorder is lacking or hard to access.32 Families commonly reported that their children were misdiagnosed and behaviours attributed to their autism conditions were often misinterpreted as ‘bad’.33 “A number of women mentioned that without sufficient support, they feared autistic children might end up in out-of-home care or, eventually, in the criminal justice system.“34

More extensive research into the way that autism impacts the experience of young people in criminal justice would provide a greater level of understanding of autism experiences within the justice system. Greater focus on Aboriginal children and young people with autism, including data on assessment, diagnosis and effectiveness of service provision would target the specific needs of this cohort. Furthermore, autism education explicitly taught to police, j udiciary and among custodial and community services could divert autistic young people from entering the justice system altogether.

Development of a National Autism Strategy (terms of reference i.)

I strongly support the principle of a National Autism Strategy as an evidence based, coordinated approach to support children with autism through individualised and appropriate services that target their particular needs. This strategy needs to take a whole-of government approach, and be supported by a clear implementation plan and appropriate funding and resourcing.

The needs and experiences of children and young people with autism should be central to the development of a National Autism Strategy. Children and young people with autism want more opportunities to make decisions about their lives and would benefit from a dedicated national strategy that increases their rights, invests in harmonised action, and adequately funds mechanisms that provide:

opportunities for children and young people with autism and their families to participate
special consideration for disadvantaged and vulnerable groups
timely and equitable access to early autism diagnosis 7

a consistent best-practice diagnostic assessment protocol
early interventions for all children
easy access to effective health and mental health services
inclusion and support in education and employment
social connections and involvement in community activities and events
greater understanding and acceptance of autism in the public domain
service providers to be well-trained, respectful and capable of taking action
a more user-friendly NDIS for children and young people with autism. In addition, an oversight body with functions of monitoring system performance such as workforce training and accreditation, and service accessibility is important to ensure improved outcomes for autistic children and young people and their families.

This National Autism Strategy should also include a clear commitment to child safety and the need for organisations working with children and young people to adhere to and implement the National Principles for Child Safe Organisations.

Social inclusion of autistic people (terms of reference k.)

Autistic children and young people have the right to be included and accepted for their difference, and to participate within social groups, the economy and community. Article 2 of the UNCRC states that all children have the right to be free from discrimination, 35 however participants told me this was not always their experience. A study of the mainstream discourse around autism in the Australian media shows that information about autism is often stigmatising or incorrect, and autistic people are frequently portrayed within a binary stereotype that is either unloved and ill-treated, or out of control and dangerous.36

Research into community attitudes and behaviours towards people with autism and experiences of autistic people reveals that misunderstanding in the community intensifies social anxiety and isolation for autistic people.37

“Autistic people tell us that it isn’t their autism that disables them. Rather it’s the lack of understanding and support from the wider community, who need to have more knowledge and make adjustments to better support autistic people. ’138

I commend the campaign, Change Your Reactions, launched this year by the Victorian Government to positively change social behaviours and reduce discriminating attitudes towards autistic people through autism awareness.39 Similarly, an ongoing national multi media campaign could educate the general community, break down stigmatising attitudes and promote higher participation of autistic people within more inclusive communities. Key findings from Mission Australia’s 2019 youth survey reports that 55 per cent of young people with a disability indicate experiencing difficulties with social inclusion at school, in public and at work because of difficulties related to their disability.40 In the same survey, forty percent of young people report that their disability causes them to struggle when participating in daily activities in public places. Whilst these findings are not specific to children and young people with autism, they do highlight the significant impact that social isolation and a lack of participation may have on them. Children and young people with autism require a strong support system that can be made up of family, friends, educators, community groups and service providers. Most consultation participants told me they relied heavily on family members to access education, health

care, vocational and community activities that provide them important social connections outside the home. Young people were grateful to be involved in peer support networks with other autistic youths where they could be themselves, share experiences, support each other and in some cases, educate t he wider community about autism using their own experiences and perspectives. It was important for autistic children and young people to have the support of reliable and trustworthy adults and to be treated fairly at home and within organisations. Autistic children and young people told us they want genuine social connection within their communities and called for more activities and sporting clubs where they are safe, supported and feel they belong. Children and young people with autism are more likely to be dependent on others because they have higher rates of school disengagement, unemployment and lower participation rates in community activities.41 Consultation participants gave examples of being stigmatised and feeling socially isolated when dealing with service institutions and many described widespread misunderstandings and discriminating attitudes about autism that negatively affected their self-esteem and wellbeing. They suffered when they were discriminated against for being themselves and wanted the community to accept them for their differences. A current example of “educating the community that it’s okay to be different”42 is the Autism West Youth Advisory Council (YAC) where autistic young people visit schools and advocate for better understanding of autism within school communities. This group of young people deliver talks at assemblies and run workshops to breakdown preconceptions and to educate primary and secondary school students about autism. Using their lived experience as well as evidence-based research, the YAC work together to invert negative stereotypes of autism and promote greater acceptance within schools and tertiary institutions.

Advocacy, self-advocacy and self-determination supports for autistic people (terms of reference I.)

Signed and ratified by the Commonwealth, Article 7 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) states that children with disabilities have an equal right to self-determination and human rights as other children. The child’s best interest must be the primary concern of any action and, “children with disabilities have the right to express their views freely on all matters that affect them”, and given assistance to exercise their right to be heard.43 The autistic children and young people who took part in my consultation overwhelmingly expressed a need to be asked about their unique challenges and experiences, and wanted to be included in the design of better policy and service systems in the future. Autistic children and young people risk being perceived as lacking capacity for decision-making due to communication, social and sensory presentations, and may need help to speak up and to advocate for their rights.

In summary I provide the following key points for consideration by the Senate Select Committee team:

The need for a National Autism Strategy that prioritises the rights of children and young people, coordinates diagnosis, interventions and research into autism
Mechanisms to support children and young people with autism to have a say in decision making and the design of services and supports

e Equitable access to autism specific health and mental health services including information, practical support and prioritised mental health support

e Educational institutions that are physically, emotionally and academically safe environments for learners with autism

e Support to find meaningful employment in inclusive workplaces and help to live independently

e Public campaigns that promote autism awareness and improve social connections, participation and community understanding

e Amore effective National Disability Insurance Scheme with a greater understanding of autism

e Consideration of disadvantaged and vulnerable groups of children and young people.

I appreciate the opportunity to provide these comments and am pleased to attach my Speaking Out About Autism report to complement this submission.

Yours sincerely

Colin Pettit

Commissioner for Children and Young People

G ao July 2020

Endnotes

1 Article 23, United Nations 1989, Convention on the Rights of the CMcl, United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner. 2 Lilley R et al 2019, We Look After Our Own Mob - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Experiences of Autism, Macquarie University, pp. 14-15. 3 Available at, https://www.nhmrc,qoy,au/research-policy/quideline-development 4 Taylor L, Brown P, Eapen V et al., (2016), Autism spectrum disorders In Australia: Are we meeting best practice standards? Autism CRC, pp. 5-8. 5 Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Hall Set al, 2020, Youth, Willing and Able - Youth Survey D/sab/llty Report 2019, Mission Australia, Sydney, p. 13. 9 Maglati I et al 2012, Early comprehensive behaviourally based interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders: A summary of findings from recent reviews and meta-analyses, Neuropsychiatry, Vol 2 No 6. 10 Lilley R et al 2019, We Look After Our Own Mob - Aboriginal and Torres Stratt Islander Experiences of Autism, Macquarie University, p. 49. 11 Lilley R et al 2019, We Look After Our Own Mob - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Experiences of Autism, Macquarie University, pp. 16-18. 12 Ibid. 13 Available at https://theconversatjon.com/new-autism-guidelines-alm-to-jmoroye-diagnostics-and access-to-services-104929 14 Available at https://www.autism.org.au/news/wings-autism-flylnq-hjgh-autism/ 15 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2015, Australia’s welfare 2015, Australia’s Welfare Series No. 12, Cat. No. AUS 189, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. 16 Articles 23 and 24, United Nations 1989, Convention on the Rights of the Child, United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner. 17 Available at https://www.legislation.gov.au/DetaUs/C2018C00125 18 Available at https://docs.education.gov.au/system/files/doc/other/disability standards for education 200s plus guidance notes,odf 19 Department of Education 2012, Employment and Workplace Relations, Report on the Review of Disability Standards for Education 2005. https://docs.educatlon.qov.au/system/files/doc/other/report on the review of djsability standards f or education 2005.pdf 20 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2018, Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings, Canberra. 21 Campbell M et al 2017, Bullying prevalence in students with autism spectrum disorder, Australasian Journal of Spee/a/ and Inc/uslve Education, Vol. 41, Issue 2, pp. 101-122. 22 The Australian Research Alliance for Children and Youth 2013, Inclusive Education for Students with Disability - A review of the best evidence In re/at/on to theory and practice, pp. 28-30. 23 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2018, Autism in Australia, Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings, Canberra. 24 Australian Bureau of Statistics 2018, “Autism in Australia”, Dlsab/1/ty, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings, Canberra. 25 Dickinson H 2020, The experience of children and young people with disability and their families during the COVID-19 pandemic. Report prepared for Children and Young People with Disability Australia (CYDA), pp. 17-18. Melbourne. 26 Brewer N and Young R 2015, Crime and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Myths and Mechanisms, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2015, Youth Justice in Australia 2014-2015, Austral/an Institute of Health and Welfare.

31 Baldry E et al 2017, ‘Cruel and unusual punishment’: an inter-jurisdictional study of the criminalisation of young people with complex support needs, Journal of Youth Studies, 1-17. 32 Lilley R et al 2019, We Look After Our Own Mob - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Experiences of Autism, Macquarie University, pp. 37-40. 33 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 35 Article 2, United Nations 1989, Convention on the Rights of the Child, United Nations Human Rights, Office of the High Commissioner. 36 Jones S and Harwood V 2009 Representations of autism in Australian print media, Journal of Disability & Society, Vol 24, Issue 1, pp. 5-18. 37 Available at http://www.onethinqforautism.eom.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Autism-research report-Ge□eral-awa reness–know ledqe-and;understa□d.inq-of-autism-and-socia l-jsolatjon-1, odf 38 Ibid. 39 Available at https://chanqeyourreactions,com/ 40 Hall S 2020, Young, Willing and Able - Youth Survey Disability Report 2019. Mission Australia, Sydney. 41 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2017, Autism in Australia 2017, Cat. No: WEB 187. Canberra: AIHW. Viewed 25 May 2020, bttps;//www.aihw.qov.au/reports/disabjlitv/autism-in a ustra Ha /related-materia I 42 18 year-old (Autism consultation). 43 Available at https://treaties.un.orq/Paqes/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg no=IV 15&chapter=4&clanq= en